Matthew 5

Introduction

Matthew 5 marks the beginning of the Sermon on the Mount, the longest and most celebrated block of Jesus' teaching in the Gospels. Delivered from a mountainside near the Sea of Galilee -- likely early in Jesus' public ministry, after He had been calling disciples and attracting large crowds through healing and preaching (Matthew 4:23-25) -- this sermon presents the ethical vision of God's kingdom. The setting is deliberately evocative: just as Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive and deliver the Law to Israel, so Jesus ascends a mountain to deliver a new, authoritative interpretation of the Law to His disciples and the gathered crowds. Matthew's audience, largely Jewish, would have recognized the parallel immediately. Jesus sits down to teach, which was the customary posture of a rabbi exercising formal authority.

The chapter moves through three major movements. First, the Beatitudes (vv. 3-12) describe the character and blessedness of those who belong to God's kingdom -- a portrait that would have startled many first-century listeners, since it exalts poverty of spirit, mourning, and meekness rather than political power or military strength. Second, the metaphors of salt and light (vv. 13-16) describe the role of Jesus' followers in the world. Third, and occupying the largest portion of the chapter, Jesus addresses His relationship to the Law of Moses (vv. 17-48). Through a series of six "antitheses" -- "You have heard that it was said... but I say to you" -- Jesus does not abolish the Old Testament commandments but deepens them, pushing past external compliance to the heart attitudes that the Law always intended. He addresses anger, lust, divorce, oaths, retaliation, and love of enemies, culminating in the stunning command to "be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect."

The Setting of the Sermon (vv. 1-2)

Notes

The phrase "went up on the mountain" (ἀνέβη εἰς τὸ ὄρος) uses the definite article -- "the mountain" rather than "a mountain" -- which may suggest either a specific, known location or a literary echo of Mount Sinai. Given Matthew's consistent portrayal of Jesus as a new Moses (see Matthew 2:15, Matthew 4:2), the Sinai overtones are almost certainly intentional.

The phrase "opening his mouth" (ἀνοίξας τὸ στόμα αὐτοῦ) is a Semitic idiom signaling the solemnity and importance of what follows. It appears in the Septuagint in contexts of formal, inspired speech (see Job 3:1). It is not merely a description of the physical act of speaking but a literary signal that what follows is weighty discourse.

Jesus "sat down" (καθίσαντος αὐτοῦ) to teach. In the synagogues and schools of first-century Judaism, the teacher sat while the students stood or sat at his feet (compare Luke 4:20). The seated posture is the posture of authority -- the Latin term for a bishop's official teaching chair, cathedra, comes from this very convention. By sitting on the mountain, Jesus assumes the role of authoritative teacher of Israel.

The Beatitudes (vv. 3-12)

Notes

The word μακάριοι ("blessed") opens each beatitude and is the key to understanding the entire passage. In classical Greek, the word described the happy, carefree state of the gods or of the very wealthy. In the Septuagint, however, it translates the Hebrew אַשְׁרֵי, which is found throughout the Psalms and Wisdom literature (see Psalm 1:1, Psalm 32:1, Psalm 119:1). It does not describe a feeling of happiness but rather an objective state of divine favor -- being in a condition that God approves and will ultimately vindicate. "Fortunate" or "honored" might capture part of the meaning, but no single English word fully conveys it.

The phrase "poor in spirit" (πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι) uses the stronger of two Greek words for poverty. While πένης describes the working poor, πτωχός describes the destitute -- those who must beg. The qualifier "in spirit" moves the poverty from the economic to the spiritual realm: these are people who recognize their utter dependence on God, who come to Him with empty hands. Compare Isaiah 66:2: "This is the one I will look to: the one who is humble and contrite in spirit." Luke's parallel version (Luke 6:20) simply has "Blessed are the poor," without the qualifier, which may reflect the same teaching applied in a different context.

In verse 4, "those who mourn" (οἱ πενθοῦντες) uses a word denoting deep grief -- the kind associated with mourning the dead or lamenting great loss. The promise that they "will be comforted" (παρακληθήσονται) echoes Isaiah 61:2, where the Messiah's mission is "to comfort all who mourn." The verb is related to παράκλητος ("Comforter" or "Advocate"), the title Jesus will later give to the Holy Spirit (John 14:16).

The "meek" (πραεῖς) in verse 5 are not the weak or passive but those who exercise power under restraint -- strength held in check. The word was used of a powerful horse that had been trained to respond to the reins. The promise that they "will inherit the earth" (κληρονομήσουσιν τὴν γῆν) quotes Psalm 37:11 almost verbatim from the Septuagint. The Greek γῆ can mean either "earth" or "land," and in the context of Psalm 37, it referred to the promised land of Israel. Jesus expands the promise to encompass the entire renewed creation.

In verse 6, "hunger and thirst for righteousness" (δικαιοσύνη) uses the metaphor of the most basic human needs to describe the intensity of longing for right relationship with God. The word χορτασθήσονται ("will be filled" or "will be satisfied") was originally used of feeding animals to the full, and conveys complete, abundant satisfaction.

The Beatitudes form a literary bracket (inclusio): the first (v. 3) and eighth (v. 10) both end with the identical promise, "for theirs is the kingdom of heaven" (ὅτι αὐτῶν ἐστιν ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν), using the present tense -- the kingdom already belongs to them -- while the intervening beatitudes use the future tense. This structure signals that the kingdom is both a present reality and a future hope.

In verses 11-12, the grammar shifts from third person ("Blessed are those who...") to second person ("Blessed are you when..."), making the final beatitude intensely personal and direct. The word ἀγαλλιᾶσθε ("be overjoyed") describes an exuberant, leaping joy -- the same word used of the unborn John the Baptist leaping in Elizabeth's womb (Luke 1:44). Jesus places His followers in the line of the prophets who suffered before them, giving persecution a redemptive context.

Salt and Light (vv. 13-16)

Notes

The pronoun "you" (ὑμεῖς) is emphatic in both verses 13 and 14 -- "You yourselves are the salt... you yourselves are the light." Jesus is making an identity declaration, not merely offering an analogy. His disciples do not merely carry salt or bear light; they are salt and light.

The verb μωρανθῇ ("loses its savor" or "becomes tasteless") is striking because it is the same root as μωρός, meaning "fool" (the word Jesus will use in verse 22). Salt that has "become foolish" -- lost its essential character -- is useless. In first-century Palestine, the salt harvested from the Dead Sea region was often impure, mixed with gypsum and other minerals. When the sodium chloride leached out, the remaining powder looked like salt but was flavorless and was literally thrown onto paths as a form of pavement. The metaphor warns against a discipleship that retains outward form but has lost its essential character.

The word φῶς ("light") is one of the most theologically loaded terms in the Bible. In the Old Testament, God Himself is light (Psalm 27:1, Isaiah 60:1), and Israel is called to be a "light for the nations" (Isaiah 42:6, Isaiah 49:6). Jesus will later declare "I am the light of the world" (John 8:12), and here He transfers that title to His followers.

The μόδιον ("basket" or "measuring bowl") was a Roman dry measure of about eight liters -- a common household container. The λυχνία ("lampstand") was a small stand, often a simple clay pedestal, designed to elevate an oil lamp so its light could fill a single-room house. The metaphor is homely and practical: hiding a lamp under a grain basket is absurd. The word καλά in verse 16, translated "good," carries the sense of "beautiful" or "noble" -- good deeds that are attractive, that draw people not to the doer but to the Father in heaven.

The Fulfillment of the Law (vv. 17-20)

Notes

The verb καταλῦσαι ("to abolish" or "to tear down") was used of demolishing a building and, in a legal context, of annulling or repealing a law. Jesus categorically denies that His mission is to repeal the Old Testament. The contrasting verb πληρῶσαι ("to fulfill") is rich with meaning in Matthew's Gospel, where it typically describes the fulfillment of prophecy. Here it extends beyond prophecy to encompass the Law itself: Jesus fulfills the Law by bringing out its full, intended meaning and by embodying in His own life the righteousness it demands.

The word ἰῶτα ("jot") refers to the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet, the yod (י), which looks like an apostrophe. The κεραία ("stroke of a pen" or "tittle") refers to the tiny decorative strokes or serifs that distinguish one Hebrew letter from another (for example, the difference between beth (ב) and kaph (כ)). Jesus is saying that the smallest detail of Scripture carries divine authority. The double negative οὐ μή ("by no means") is the strongest form of negation in Greek, expressing absolute impossibility.

The verb λύσῃ ("loosens" or "breaks") in verse 19 is related to καταλύω in verse 17. Where Jesus says He has not come to "tear down" the Law, anyone who "loosens" even the smallest commandment -- relaxing its claims or explaining it away -- will face consequences in the kingdom. The contrast between "least" and "great" in the kingdom suggests degrees of honor rather than exclusion.

Verse 20 is the thesis statement for the six antitheses that follow. The δικαιοσύνη ("righteousness") of the scribes and Pharisees was proverbial in Judaism -- they were the most rigorous keepers of the Law. The verb περισσεύσῃ ("exceeds" or "abounds beyond") does not mean "a slightly higher standard" but "surpasses abundantly." Jesus is not calling for more of the same kind of righteousness but for a qualitatively different righteousness -- one that penetrates from external behavior to the heart. This sets up the antitheses that follow.

Anger and Reconciliation (vv. 21-26)

Notes

This is the first of six "antitheses" that structure the rest of chapter 5. The formula "You have heard that it was said... but I say to you" (Ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἐρρέθη... ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν) is remarkable for its authority. The rabbis typically taught by citing other authorities: "Rabbi so-and-so said..." Jesus cites no human authority. The emphatic ἐγώ ("I myself") places His own word on par with the Torah itself.

The quotation "You shall not murder" comes from Exodus 20:13 (the sixth commandment). Jesus does not dispute the commandment but extends its reach: the sin of murder begins in the heart as anger. The word ὀργιζόμενος ("being angry") is a present participle, suggesting ongoing, harbored anger rather than a momentary flash of emotion. Some later manuscripts add the phrase "without cause" (εἰκῇ), which softens the saying; the earlier and better manuscripts omit it, leaving Jesus' statement in its most radical form.

Ῥακά is an Aramaic term of contempt, roughly meaning "empty-headed" or "worthless." The word μωρέ ("fool") may seem mild in English, but in a Jewish context it could carry the connotation of moral and spiritual worthlessness -- calling someone a rebel against God (compare Psalm 14:1: "The fool says in his heart, 'There is no God'"). Jesus presents an escalating scale: anger leads to contempt, contempt to condemnation, and the penalties escalate from the local court to the Sanhedrin (the supreme Jewish council) to γέεννα (Gehenna). Gehenna was the Valley of Hinnom south of Jerusalem, where child sacrifice had once been practiced (2 Kings 23:10) and which had become the symbolic image of God's final judgment by fire.

The scenario in verses 23-24 is vivid and specific: a worshiper is in the very act of presenting a sacrifice at the Jerusalem temple. Jesus says that reconciliation with a brother takes priority even over worship. The verb διαλλάγηθι ("be reconciled") appears only here in the New Testament. It is a compound form emphasizing a thorough, mutual resolution -- not merely "make peace" but "exchange hostility for friendship."

The κοδράντης ("penny") in verse 26 is a Roman copper coin, the quadrans, worth about 1/64 of a denarius (a day's wage). The image is of a debtor in prison who cannot be released until even the smallest fraction of the debt is cleared -- a warning about the urgency of reconciliation.

Adultery and Lust (vv. 27-30)

Notes

The second antithesis extends the seventh commandment (Exodus 20:14) from the physical act of adultery to the lustful gaze that precedes it. The Greek construction πρὸς τὸ ἐπιθυμῆσαι ("in order to desire") uses a purposive infinitive -- this is not describing an involuntary glance or passing temptation but a deliberate, sustained looking with the intent of arousing desire. The verb ἐπιθυμέω is the same word used in the Septuagint for Exodus 20:17: "You shall not covet." Jesus connects the tenth commandment (coveting) with the seventh (adultery), showing that they address the same inner reality.

The phrase "in his heart" (ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ αὐτοῦ) places the sin at the level of intention. In Jewish anthropology, the καρδία ("heart") was not primarily the seat of emotions but of the will, thought, and moral decision-making. Jesus is saying that the adultery has already taken place internally, in the person's deliberate will, even if no physical act follows.

The verb σκανδαλίζει ("causes to stumble" or "causes to sin") comes from σκάνδαλον, which originally meant the trigger of a trap -- the stick that, when touched, causes the trap to snap shut. The imagery of tearing out an eye or cutting off a hand is hyperbolic -- Jesus is not prescribing literal self-mutilation, since the problem lies not in the body but in the will. Rather, He is using shocking language to convey the seriousness with which disciples must deal with sin. Any practice, relationship, or habit that functions as a trigger for sin must be dealt with radically. The word συμφέρει ("it is better" or "it is profitable") frames the calculation in terms of cost and benefit: better a temporary, partial loss than total destruction.

Divorce (vv. 31-32)

Notes

The third antithesis addresses Deuteronomy 24:1, which permitted a man to write his wife a certificate of divorce if he found "something indecent" in her. In Jesus' day, the Pharisaic schools of Hillel and Shammai debated what constituted legitimate grounds. The school of Hillel permitted divorce for nearly any reason (including burning dinner), while Shammai restricted it to sexual misconduct. Jesus' teaching is far more restrictive than either school.

The word ἀποστάσιον ("certificate of divorce") was a legal document that officially severed the marriage bond and freed the woman to remarry. The original purpose in Deuteronomy was protective -- it prevented a husband from casually dismissing his wife without documentation, and it gave her legal proof that she was free. Jesus indicates that Moses permitted divorce as a concession to human hardness of heart, not as God's original design (see the fuller discussion in Matthew 19:3-9).

The exception clause, παρεκτὸς λόγου πορνείας ("except on the ground of sexual immorality"), is unique to Matthew's Gospel (Luke's parallel in Luke 16:18 has no exception). The word πορνεία is broader than μοιχεία ("adultery") and can encompass a range of sexual sins, including adultery, incest, and other forms of sexual unfaithfulness. The precise meaning of this exception has been debated throughout church history. Some interpreters understand it as referring to premarital unfaithfulness discovered after betrothal (connecting it to Joseph's situation in Matthew 1:19), while others take it as a general reference to marital infidelity.

The statement that the divorcing husband "makes her commit adultery" (ποιεῖ αὐτὴν μοιχευθῆναι) reflects the social reality of the ancient world: a divorced woman with no independent means of support would normally have to remarry, and Jesus considers that subsequent marriage adulterous because the original marriage bond still stands in God's eyes.

Oaths (vv. 33-37)

Notes

The fourth antithesis addresses the Old Testament prohibitions against false oaths (Leviticus 19:12, Numbers 30:2, Deuteronomy 23:21). The verb ἐπιορκήσεις ("swear falsely" or "break an oath") was a serious matter in both Jewish and Roman law. In first-century Judaism, an elaborate system of casuistry had developed around oaths: swearing by God's name was absolutely binding, but swearing by heaven, earth, Jerusalem, or one's own head was considered less binding -- a loophole that allowed evasive swearing. Jesus' teaching in Matthew 23:16-22 exposes this casuistry directly.

Jesus' command "do not swear at all" (μὴ ὀμόσαι ὅλως) cuts through the entire system. His reasoning is that all oaths ultimately invoke God, whether explicitly or not: heaven is God's throne (quoting Isaiah 66:1), earth is His footstool, Jerusalem is His city (Psalm 48:2), and even the hairs of one's head are under His sovereign control. There is no realm of reality that is not God's -- and therefore no oath formula that avoids invoking Him.

The phrase ναὶ ναί, οὒ οὔ ("Yes, yes; No, no") does not mean swearing a double oath but rather that one's simple affirmation or denial should be completely reliable. The word περισσόν ("beyond" or "in excess") suggests that anything added to a simple yes or no -- any elaborate oath to bolster one's credibility -- is a sign that truthfulness has broken down. Jesus says this excess "comes from the evil one" (ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ), which could also be translated "comes from evil." The need for oaths exists only because people do not trust each other's words, and that distrust is rooted in the fallenness of the world.

Retaliation (vv. 38-42)

Notes

The fifth antithesis cites the lex talionis ("law of retaliation") found in Exodus 21:24, Leviticus 24:20, and Deuteronomy 19:21. In its original context, this law was not a license for vengeance but a limit on it: the punishment must not exceed the offense. It replaced the cycle of escalating blood feuds with proportional justice administered by courts. Jesus does not deny the validity of proportional justice in civil law but calls His followers to a higher standard in personal relationships.

The verb ἀντιστῆναι ("to resist" or "to set yourself against") is a strong word often used in military or legal contexts. Jesus calls His followers not to retaliate against τῷ πονηρῷ ("the evildoer" or "the evil person"). The slap on the "right cheek" is significant: since most people are right-handed, a blow to the right cheek would be a backhanded slap -- a gesture of insult and humiliation rather than a life-threatening attack. Jesus is addressing how to respond to personal insults and petty injustice, not whether a government should maintain law and order.

The χιτών ("tunic") was the inner garment worn next to the skin, while the ἱμάτιον ("cloak") was the outer garment that also served as a blanket at night. Under Jewish law (Exodus 22:26-27), a creditor was required to return a cloak taken in pledge before nightfall, because it was the poor person's only protection from the cold. Jesus' instruction to surrender even the cloak goes beyond legal obligation into radical generosity.

The verb ἀγγαρεύσει ("forces" or "compels") is a Persian loanword that had entered Greek through the Roman military system. Roman soldiers had the legal right to conscript civilians to carry their equipment for one Roman mile (about 4,855 feet). This was a despised feature of the occupation. Jesus tells His followers not merely to comply with the minimum legal requirement but to double it voluntarily -- an act that transforms the forced servitude into a free gift and, in doing so, asserts the dignity of the one who serves. This same verb appears when Simon of Cyrene was "compelled" to carry Jesus' cross (Matthew 27:32).

Love of Enemies (vv. 43-48)

Notes

The sixth and final antithesis is the climax of the series. "Love your neighbor" comes from Leviticus 19:18, but "hate your enemy" is not found in the Old Testament as a direct command. It appears to reflect a popular extrapolation -- if the command says "love your neighbor," then enemies are excluded. Some scholars have noted that the Dead Sea Scrolls community at Qumran explicitly taught hatred of outsiders ("love the sons of light, hate the sons of darkness"). Jesus demolishes this reasoning entirely.

The verb ἀγαπᾶτε ("love") is the present imperative of ἀγαπάω, which in the New Testament denotes not primarily an emotion but a settled, deliberate commitment to seek the good of another. This is not a command to feel warm affection toward those who harm you but to act for their welfare. The parallel command to "pray for those who persecute you" (προσεύχεσθε ὑπὲρ τῶν διωκόντων ὑμᾶς) provides the concrete means: prayer for an enemy is the first and most powerful expression of love, because it places the enemy's welfare before God.

The purpose clause in verse 45 is striking: "so that you may become children of your Father" (ὅπως γένησθε υἱοὶ τοῦ Πατρός). Loving enemies does not earn sonship but demonstrates it -- it is the family resemblance. God Himself gives sun and rain to evil and good alike, without discrimination. This is not moral indifference but lavish, undiscriminating grace. The imagery draws from daily experience in an agricultural society where sun and rain were the essentials of life.

The τελῶναι ("tax collectors") in verse 46 were Jewish agents who collected taxes and tolls on behalf of the Roman occupation. They were despised both as collaborators with the pagan empire and as notorious cheaters who enriched themselves by overcharging. To say "even the tax collectors do this" was to set the lowest possible moral bar. Similarly, the ἐθνικοί ("Gentiles" or "pagans") in verse 47 were considered by pious Jews to be outside God's covenant and therefore morally inferior. The rhetorical questions are devastating: if your love extends only to those who love you back, you are no better than the people you look down on.

The chapter's final verse is its summit. The word τέλειοι ("perfect") does not mean sinless perfection in the abstract but completeness, wholeness, or maturity -- reaching the intended goal. It is related to τέλος ("end" or "purpose"). In context, it means specifically this: be complete in your love, as God is complete in His love. God does not love selectively; neither should you. Luke's parallel version (Luke 6:36) reads "Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful," which captures the same idea from a different angle. The verb ἔσεσθε is future indicative -- "you will be perfect" -- which can function as an imperative in Greek. It carries both the force of a command and the promise that such a life is possible for those who belong to the kingdom.