Lamentations 4
Introduction
Lamentations 4 returns to the single acrostic form of chapters 1 and 2, with each of its twenty-two verses beginning with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Like chapter 2 (and unlike chapter 1), it reverses the order of the sixteenth and seventeenth letters, placing פ before ע — a variant ordering attested in some ancient alphabetic texts. The poem is a retrospective on the siege and fall of Jerusalem, moving from graphic images of degradation (vv. 1-10) to the theological cause of the disaster (vv. 11-16), to the futile hope for rescue and the king's capture (vv. 17-20), and finally to a biting address to Edom and a promise that Zion's punishment will end (vv. 21-22).
Where chapter 3 offered a personal confession of hope at its center, chapter 4 offers no such comfort. It is the most plainly descriptive of the five poems — a journalist's account of famine, siege, and collapse. The gold of the temple lies scattered in the streets; children beg for bread; the skin of the nobles has turned black on their bones; compassionate mothers have boiled their own children. Behind all of this stands the LORD's wrath (v. 11), provoked not by the people in general but by the specific sins of the prophets and priests who shed innocent blood (v. 13). The chapter's final word, however, turns from darkness to dawn: Daughter Zion's punishment is complete, and exile will not be prolonged — but Edom's reckoning is still to come.
The Degradation of Zion's Treasures and Children (vv. 1-6)
1 How the gold has become tarnished, the pure gold has become dull! The gems of the temple lie scattered on every street corner. 2 How the precious sons of Zion, once worth their weight in pure gold, are now esteemed as jars of clay, the work of a potter's hands! 3 Even jackals offer their breasts to nurse their young, but the daughter of my people has become cruel, like an ostrich in the wilderness. 4 The nursing infant's tongue clings in thirst to the roof of his mouth. Little children beg for bread, but no one gives them any. 5 Those who once ate delicacies are destitute in the streets; those brought up in crimson huddle in ash heaps. 6 The punishment of the daughter of my people is greater than that of Sodom, which was overthrown in an instant without a hand turned to help her.
1 How the gold has lost its luster! How the fine gold has changed! The sacred stones lie poured out at the head of every street. 2 The precious sons of Zion, valued as fine gold — how they are reckoned as clay pots, the work of a potter's hands! 3 Even jackals bare the breast and nurse their young, but the daughter of my people has become heartless, like ostriches in the wilderness. 4 The tongue of the nursing child sticks to the roof of its mouth from thirst; small children beg for bread, but no one breaks it for them. 5 Those who once feasted on delicacies are desolate in the streets; those reared in crimson cling to ash heaps. 6 The guilt of the daughter of my people has grown greater than the sin of Sodom, which was overthrown in a moment, though no hands were wrung over her.
Notes
The chapter opens with the same cry that begins the entire book: אֵיכָה ("How!") — the exclamation of stunned disbelief that also opens chapters 1 and 2 (Lamentations 1:1, Lamentations 2:1). The word recurs in verse 2 as well, intensifying the shock. What was once precious beyond measure — gold, sacred stones, and human beings — has been degraded to worthlessness.
כֶּתֶם ("fine gold") — This is not the ordinary word for gold (זָהָב), which also appears in the verse, but a rarer, more literary term for the purest, most refined gold. It occurs in poetry and wisdom literature (Job 28:16, Job 28:19; Psalm 45:9; Isaiah 13:12) and always denotes gold of the highest quality. The parallel structure — ordinary gold has become dim, and even the finest gold has changed — creates a crescendo of loss.
אַבְנֵי קֹדֶשׁ ("sacred stones" or "holy stones") — Some translations render this "gems of the temple," which is interpretive. The Hebrew literally says "stones of holiness." These may refer to the precious stones of the temple, the gems on the high priest's breastplate (Exodus 28:17-20), or metaphorically to the people of Zion themselves (as verse 2 will make explicit). The image of sacred stones "poured out" (תִּשְׁתַּפֵּכְנָה, from the root meaning "to pour out, to spill") at every street corner is one of sacrilege and chaos — what belonged in the holy place is now strewn in the gutter.
נִבְלֵי חֶרֶשׂ ("clay pots" or "earthen vessels") — The word נֵבֶל means "jar, jug, skin-bottle" — a cheap, disposable container. The contrast is stark: sons once valued at fine gold (פָּז, the most refined gold, even purer than kethem) are now treated as throwaway pottery. The potter (יוֹצֵר) shapes clay vessels for everyday use; they crack easily and are discarded without thought. This is what Zion's children have become.
תַּנִּים ("jackals") — The KJV translates this as "sea monsters" (confusing it with תַּנִּינִם), but the context makes clear these are jackals — wild animals of the desert that, despite their reputation for scavenging, still nurse their young. The contrast with the "daughter of my people" is sharp: even a jackal mothers its offspring, but famine has made the women of Zion אַכְזָר ("cruel, heartless"). The comparison to the יְעֵנִים ("ostriches") alludes to the common belief that ostriches neglected their eggs (Job 39:13-16), leaving them in the sand to be trampled.
Verse 6 introduces the key word עָוֹן, which carries a double meaning that is central to the theology of Lamentations: it can mean both "iniquity/guilt" (the sin itself) and "punishment" (the consequence of the sin). Many English translations render it "punishment" (KJV) or "chastisement" (ESV). The translation here uses "guilt" to preserve the ambiguity, since the Hebrew reader would hear both senses simultaneously. The daughter of my people's avon (guilt-and-punishment) exceeds the chattat (sin) of Sodom. The comparison is not that Jerusalem was more wicked than Sodom (though cf. Ezekiel 16:48), but that her suffering was worse: Sodom was destroyed in a single moment (כְמוֹ רָגַע, "like an instant"), whereas Jerusalem endured a prolonged siege of starvation, disease, and horror. The phrase "no hands were wrung over her" (literally, "no hands writhed over her") may mean that no one mourned Sodom's fall, or simply that no human hands were raised against her in a prolonged siege — she was overthrown in an instant without the drawn-out horror Jerusalem endured. Either way, Sodom's end was swift; Jerusalem's was not.
Interpretations
The comparison of Jerusalem's punishment to Sodom's has been interpreted differently across traditions. Some interpreters (following the Targum and many medieval Jewish commentators) emphasize that Sodom's destruction was instant and therefore more merciful — Jerusalem suffered more even if her sin was not necessarily greater. Others, including some Church Fathers, take the comparison at face value: Jerusalem's guilt exceeded Sodom's because Jerusalem had received the covenant, the law, and the prophets, yet still sinned. Jesus himself uses a similar logic in Matthew 11:23-24, warning Capernaum that it will be worse for her than for Sodom on the day of judgment, because she witnessed his miracles yet did not repent. The principle of greater privilege bringing greater accountability is central to both readings.
The Nobility Reduced to Nothing (vv. 7-10)
7 Her dignitaries were brighter than snow, whiter than milk; their bodies were more ruddy than rubies, their appearance like sapphires. 8 But now their appearance is blacker than soot; they are not recognized in the streets. Their skin has shriveled on their bones; it has become as dry as a stick. 9 Those slain by the sword are better off than those who die of hunger, who waste away, pierced with pain because the fields lack produce. 10 The hands of compassionate women have cooked their own children, who became their food in the destruction of the daughter of my people.
7 Her consecrated ones were purer than snow, whiter than milk; their bodies were ruddier than coral, their form like lapis lazuli. 8 But now their appearance is darker than soot; they are unrecognizable in the streets. Their skin has shriveled on their bones; it has dried out like wood. 9 Better off were those slain by the sword than those slain by hunger, who wasted away, pierced through for lack of the produce of the field. 10 The hands of tender-hearted women have boiled their own children; they became their food in the ruin of the daughter of my people.
Notes
נְזִירֶיהָ ("her consecrated ones" or "her princes") — The KJV translates this as "Nazarites," connecting it to the Nazirite vow of Numbers 6:1-21. But most modern scholars understand the word here as meaning "nobles, distinguished ones, princes" — those set apart by rank and privilege rather than by a religious vow. The root נָזַר means "to separate, to consecrate," and the noun can refer to anyone set apart, whether by vow or by social position. Other translations use "princes" or "dignitaries." The translation here keeps "consecrated ones" to preserve the root's connotation of being set apart, which makes the contrast with their present defilement all the more striking.
The description in verse 7 uses four comparisons to convey the former beauty and health of Jerusalem's elite: purer than snow, whiter than milk, ruddier than פְּנִינִים (usually "coral" or "pearls," sometimes translated "rubies"), and their גִּזְרָה ("form, figure, cut") like סַפִּיר. The Hebrew word sappir refers not to the modern sapphire but to lapis lazuli — the deep blue stone prized throughout the ancient Near East, associated with the very pavement of heaven (Exodus 24:10). The four-fold comparison creates an image of radiant, vigorous health — people who embodied flourishing in every physical detail.
Verse 8 reverses every element: their תֹּאַר ("appearance, form") is now darker than שְׁחוֹר ("soot, blackness"). They are unrecognizable — the verb נִכְּרוּ (from נָכַר, "to recognize") is negated. These formerly radiant people cannot be identified. Their skin has צָפַד ("shriveled, shrunk") onto their bones, and it has become dry כָעֵץ ("like a stick" or "like wood"). The transformation from lapis lazuli to soot, from snow-white to skeletal black, captures the effect of prolonged starvation.
Verse 9 delivers a grim calculus: those killed swiftly by the sword (חַלְלֵי חֶרֶב) were "better off" (טוֹבִים) than those killed by famine (חַלְלֵי רָעָב). The famine victims "waste away" — the verb יָזוּבוּ means "to flow, to ooze," suggesting they slowly drain away, their bodies leaking life. They are מְדֻקָּרִים ("pierced through") — not by swords but by the lack of the field's produce. Hunger pierces as surely as a blade, but more slowly and more cruelly.
Verse 10 reaches the nadir of the chapter's horror. נָשִׁים רַחֲמָנִיּוֹת ("tender-hearted women" or "compassionate women") — the adjective comes from the root רַחַם, the same root as the word for "womb" (רֶחֶם) and "compassion" (רַחֲמִים). These are women whose very name speaks of tenderness. Yet they have בִּשְּׁלוּ ("boiled, cooked") their own children. The children became בָרוֹת ("food, nourishment") for them. This is the fulfillment of the covenant curse in Deuteronomy 28:53-57, which warned that in the siege the most tender and delicate woman would secretly eat her own children. The same horror is reported in 2 Kings 6:28-29 during the Aramean siege of Samaria and prophesied in Jeremiah 19:9. The poet does not editorialize; the bare statement speaks for itself.
God's Wrath and the Sin of the Leaders (vv. 11-16)
11 The LORD has exhausted His wrath; He has poured out His fierce anger; He has kindled a fire in Zion, and it has consumed her foundations. 12 The kings of the earth did not believe, nor any people of the world, that an enemy or a foe could enter the gates of Jerusalem. 13 But this was for the sins of her prophets and the guilt of her priests, who shed the blood of the righteous in her midst. 14 They wandered blind in the streets, defiled by this blood, so that no one dared to touch their garments. 15 "Go away! Unclean!" men shouted at them. "Away, away! Do not touch us!" So they fled and wandered. Among the nations it was said, "They can stay here no longer." 16 The presence of the LORD has scattered them; He regards them no more. The priests are shown no honor; the elders find no favor.
11 The LORD has spent His wrath; He has poured out His burning anger. He kindled a fire in Zion that consumed her very foundations. 12 The kings of the earth could not have believed, nor any who dwell in the world, that a foe or an enemy could enter the gates of Jerusalem. 13 It was because of the sins of her prophets, the iniquities of her priests, who shed the blood of the righteous in her midst. 14 They staggered through the streets like the blind, so defiled with blood that no one could touch their garments. 15 "Get away! Unclean!" people cried at them. "Away! Away! Do not touch!" When they fled and wandered, it was said among the nations, "They shall dwell here no longer." 16 The face of the LORD has scattered them; He will look on them no more. They showed no honor to priests; they showed no favor to elders.
Notes
כִּלָּה יְהוָה אֶת חֲמָתוֹ ("The LORD has spent/exhausted His wrath") — The verb כָּלָה means "to finish, to complete, to bring to an end." The LORD's wrath is not infinite in duration; it has been fully expended. The observation contains a buried hope: if God's anger has been spent, it cannot go on. The same verb appears in Lamentations 4:22 ("your punishment is complete"), forming an inclusio around this section. God's fury was expressed in three ways: He poured it out (שָׁפַךְ, the same verb used for pouring out blood), He kindled a fire (וַיַּצֶּת אֵשׁ), and that fire consumed Zion's יְסוֹדֹתֶיהָ ("foundations") — not just the buildings but the very base on which the city stood. The destruction was total, from top to bottom.
Verse 12 registers the astonishment of the entire world. Jerusalem was considered impregnable — protected by its geography (high on a ridge, surrounded by valleys), its fortifications, and above all by the presence of the LORD in His temple. The "Zion theology" expressed in psalms like Psalm 46:1-7 and Psalm 48:1-8 celebrated the city as the dwelling of God, unshakable against any assault. That an adversary (צַר) and enemy (אוֹיֵב) could enter the gates of Jerusalem was, to the ancient world, unthinkable — not merely a military surprise but a theological crisis. If God's city could fall, what did that say about God?
Verses 13-14 answer the question directly: the cause was not God's weakness but the leaders' wickedness. The poet names two groups: נְבִיאֶיהָ ("her prophets") and כֹּהֲנֶיהָ ("her priests"). Their specific crime was shedding דַּם צַדִּיקִים ("the blood of the righteous") within the city. This likely refers to the persecution of true prophets and faithful people by the corrupt religious establishment — the kind of injustice Jeremiah himself experienced (Jeremiah 26:20-23, where the prophet Uriah was murdered; Jeremiah 38:4-6, where Jeremiah was thrown into a cistern). False prophets and corrupt priests led the people astray with assurances of peace when there was no peace (Jeremiah 6:14, Jeremiah 23:11-17), and they silenced or killed those who spoke the truth.
נָעוּ עִוְרִים בַּחוּצוֹת ("they staggered like the blind in the streets") — The same leaders who once walked with authority now stagger (נוּעַ, "to wander, to stagger, to totter") as if blind. They are נְגֹאֲלוּ ("defiled, polluted") with blood — ironically, the blood they themselves shed. The defilement is so severe that no one can touch even their garments, evoking the language of ritual impurity from Leviticus 15:4-12. In verse 15, people shout at them with the very language used for lepers: סוּרוּ טָמֵא ("Get away! Unclean!") — the same cry a leper was required to make about himself (Leviticus 13:45-46). The irony is unmistakable: the priests who once declared others clean or unclean are now themselves declared unclean by the very people they served.
פְּנֵי יְהוָה חִלְּקָם ("The face of the LORD has scattered them") — The "face" or "presence" (פָּנִים) of God, which in the priestly blessing shines upon Israel and gives peace (Numbers 6:25-26), has now turned against them and scattered them. The same divine face that was their hope has become their judgment. The verse ends with a double negation: priests receive no נָשָׂאוּ ("honor" — literally "lifting up of face") and elders receive no חָנָנוּ ("favor, grace"). The ones who were supposed to mediate God's grace to the people now receive none themselves.
Interpretations
The identification of prophets and priests as the primary cause of Jerusalem's fall has significant implications for how different traditions understand the relationship between religious leadership and corporate judgment. Reformed interpreters often emphasize the representative role of leaders — when those entrusted with God's word corrupt it, the entire community suffers the consequences, underscoring the principle of covenantal solidarity. This resonates with the prophetic tradition in which the sins of kings and priests bring judgment on the whole nation (Jeremiah 23:1-4, Ezekiel 34:1-10). Other Protestant traditions, particularly those with congregationalist polities, have used passages like this to argue against unchecked clerical authority, pointing to the danger of a religious elite that becomes accountable to no one. In either reading, the principle is the same: those who bear God's name and handle His word are held to the strictest accounting (James 3:1).
The Futile Wait for Help and the King's Capture (vv. 17-20)
17 All the while our eyes were failing as we looked in vain for help. We watched from our towers for a nation that could not save us. 18 They stalked our every step, so that we could not walk in our streets. Our end drew near, our time ran out, for our end had come! 19 Those who chased us were swifter than the eagles in the sky; they pursued us over the mountains and ambushed us in the wilderness. 20 The LORD's anointed, the breath of our life, was captured in their pits. We had said of him, "Under his shadow we will live among the nations."
17 Still our eyes wasted away, looking for help that never came. From our watchtower we watched and watched for a nation that could not save. 18 They tracked our steps so that we could not walk in our open squares. Our end drew near; our days were full, for our end had come. 19 Our pursuers were swifter than eagles in the sky; they chased us over the mountains and ambushed us in the wilderness. 20 The breath of our nostrils, the LORD's anointed, was caught in their traps — he of whom we said, "In his shadow we shall live among the nations."
Notes
The voice shifts here from third-person description to first-person plural: "our eyes," "our help," "our steps." The poet now speaks as one of the besieged community, recalling the desperate final days of Jerusalem before its fall in 586 BC.
עוֹדֵינוּ תִּכְלֶינָה עֵינֵינוּ אֶל עֶזְרָתֵנוּ הָבֶל ("still our eyes wasted away, looking to our help — in vain") — The verb כָּלָה ("to waste away, to fail, to be consumed") was used of God's wrath in verse 11; now it describes the people's eyes, straining until they literally fail. The הָבֶל ("vanity, emptiness, futility") is the same word as the name Abel and Ecclesiastes' refrain — their hope was vapor. The "nation that could not save" is almost certainly Egypt. Judah had repeatedly looked to Egypt as an ally against Babylon, despite Jeremiah's warnings that this was futile (Jeremiah 37:5-10). Egypt did send an army that briefly caused the Babylonians to lift the siege, but it withdrew without engaging in battle, and the siege resumed (Jeremiah 37:5-8).
צָדוּ צְעָדֵינוּ ("they hunted/tracked our steps") — The verb צוּד means "to hunt" (it is the root of Esau's occupation as a hunter, Genesis 25:27). The Babylonian siege was not merely a blockade but an active hunting of the population. They could not even walk in their רְחֹבֹתֵינוּ ("open squares, plazas") — the public spaces that were the heart of civic life. Three parallel phrases hammer the finality: "our end drew near" (קָרַב קִצֵּינוּ), "our days were full" (מָלְאוּ יָמֵינוּ), "our end had come" (בָּא קִצֵּינוּ). The repetition of קֵץ ("end") — twice in one verse — leaves no room for hope.
קַלִּים הָיוּ רֹדְפֵינוּ מִנִּשְׁרֵי שָׁמָיִם ("our pursuers were swifter than eagles of the sky") — The נֶשֶׁר is the great griffon vulture or eagle — the fastest and most powerful bird in the Israelite imagination (Deuteronomy 28:49, 2 Samuel 1:23, Jeremiah 4:13). The comparison emphasizes the terrifying speed of the Babylonian pursuit. Those who fled the city were chased across the mountains and ambushed in the wilderness — the exact route of Zedekiah's flight toward the Jordan Valley (2 Kings 25:4-5, Jeremiah 39:4-5).
Verse 20 is the theological climax of this section. רוּחַ אַפֵּינוּ מְשִׁיחַ יְהוָה ("the breath of our nostrils, the LORD's anointed") — the king is described as the very "breath of our nostrils," the air the community breathes. The phrase evokes Genesis 2:7, where God breathes the breath of life into Adam's nostrils — the king was to the nation what breath is to the body. The title מְשִׁיחַ יְהוָה ("the LORD's anointed") refers to King Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, who was captured by the Babylonians at Jericho as he tried to flee through the plains (2 Kings 25:5-7, Jeremiah 52:8-11). Despite Zedekiah's weakness and faithlessness (he had broken his oath to Nebuchadnezzar and ignored Jeremiah's counsel), the poet still honors the office: the anointed king was the shadow (צֵל) under which the nation hoped to live even in exile. His capture meant the end of the Davidic monarchy's visible presence — a blow not just politically but theologically, since God's covenant with David promised an enduring dynasty (2 Samuel 7:12-16).
Interpretations
The phrase "the LORD's anointed" (מְשִׁיחַ יְהוָה) has been read in different ways. In its historical context, it refers to Zedekiah. But early Christian interpreters (including some Church Fathers such as Theodoret of Cyrrhus) read it christologically, seeing in the captured and humiliated anointed one a foreshadowing of Christ's suffering. Most Protestant exegetes today maintain the historical referent while noting the typological connection: the Davidic king as "breath of our nostrils" points beyond any single monarch to the ultimate Davidic king. The language of "shadow" under which the nations live echoes messianic imagery found in Psalm 91:1 and Isaiah 32:2. Reformed interpreters typically see this as part of the larger biblical pattern in which the failure of human kings points to the necessity of a perfect king — the anointed one who would not be taken in the enemy's traps but would triumph over them.
A Word to Edom and Hope for Zion (vv. 21-22)
21 So rejoice and be glad, O Daughter of Edom, you who dwell in the land of Uz. Yet the cup will pass to you as well; you will get drunk and expose yourself. 22 O Daughter of Zion, your punishment is complete; He will not prolong your exile. But He will punish your iniquity, O Daughter of Edom; He will expose your sins.
21 Rejoice and be glad, Daughter of Edom, you who dwell in the land of Uz! But the cup will pass to you also; you will get drunk and strip yourself bare. 22 Your punishment is finished, Daughter of Zion; He will not prolong your exile. But He will punish your guilt, Daughter of Edom; He will lay bare your sins.
Notes
שִׂישִׂי וְשִׂמְחִי בַּת אֱדוֹם ("Rejoice and be glad, Daughter of Edom") — The imperative is bitterly ironic. The poet tells Edom to celebrate — for now. Edom (the descendants of Esau, Genesis 36:1) was Judah's neighbor to the southeast. When Babylon destroyed Jerusalem, Edom not only failed to help but actively rejoiced and participated in the plunder (Obadiah 1:10-14, Psalm 137:7). The prophets consistently condemn Edom for this betrayal of a brother-nation (Ezekiel 25:12-14, Amos 1:11-12). The mention of אֶרֶץ עוּץ ("the land of Uz") connects Edom to the setting of the book of Job (Job 1:1), which is associated with the region east of the Jordan and south of Edom.
כּוֹס ("cup") — The cup of God's wrath is a recurring prophetic image. It appears in Jeremiah 25:15-29, where God commands Jeremiah to make all nations drink the cup of His fury, beginning with Jerusalem and extending to all the surrounding nations, including Edom. The image recurs in Isaiah 51:17-22, Habakkuk 2:16, and Psalm 75:8. The cup brings intoxication and humiliation: Edom will get drunk (תִּשְׁכְּרִי) and strip herself bare (וְתִתְעָרִי, from עָרָה, "to be exposed, to be naked"). The exposure of nakedness is a standard prophetic metaphor for the shame of judgment (Nahum 3:5, Isaiah 47:3).
Verse 22 is the final verse of the chapter and serves as its turning point. Two parallel statements address two "daughters": בַּת צִיּוֹן ("Daughter of Zion") and בַּת אֱדוֹם ("Daughter of Edom"). For Zion, the word is one of release: תַּם עֲוֹנֵךְ ("your punishment/guilt is complete, finished"). The verb תַּם means "to be complete, to be finished, to be at an end" — the same root as the adjective תָּם ("blameless, whole"), used of Job in Job 1:1. God will not "continue" (לֹא יוֹסִיף) to exile her. For Edom, the word is the opposite: God will "visit" (פָּקַד) her guilt — the verb paqad meaning both "to visit" and "to punish" — and will "uncover" (גִּלָּה) her sins. The same verb is used for the exposure of nakedness and for the deportation into exile. Edom's gloating will end in her own humiliation.
The structure of the verse is a chiasm: punishment complete (Zion) / exile ended (Zion) // guilt punished (Edom) / sins exposed (Edom). What is ending for Zion is only beginning for Edom. This is the chapter's final word: not a triumphant hope, but a sober assurance that God's justice works both ways. The oppressed will be released; the oppressor will be held to account. This principle is picked up and amplified in the prophetic oracle of Obadiah 1:15: "For the day of the LORD is near upon all the nations. As you have done, it shall be done to you; your deeds shall return on your own head."
Interpretations
The promise that Zion's punishment is "complete" has been understood in various ways. Some interpreters take it as an absolute promise of restoration — God has finished judging His people and will now restore them, a reading that aligns with the promises of Isaiah 40:1-2 ("Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry to her that her warfare is ended, that her iniquity is pardoned"). Others caution that the language is conditional in the broader canonical context: the return from exile was partial and gradual, and full restoration awaited further developments. Dispensational interpreters sometimes connect the promise of completed punishment with the eventual restoration of national Israel, seeing in this verse a pattern that extends to the eschatological future. Covenant theology tends to see the fulfillment in Christ, in whom the ultimate punishment for sin was completed once for all (Romans 8:1), and the exile of God's people from His presence was decisively ended through the cross.