1 Samuel 1

Introduction

First Samuel opens with a story that echoes the great birth narratives of Scripture: a barren woman cries out to God, and God answers with a son who will shape Israel's history. Hannah, one of two wives of Elkanah the Ephraimite, is childless and provoked by her rival Peninnah. Year after year she endures this humiliation at the place where Israel worships, the tabernacle at Shiloh. In her anguish she makes a vow: if God gives her a son, she will dedicate him to the LORD for life, with the Nazirite-like stipulation that no razor will touch his head. The priest Eli, seeing her lips move without sound, mistakes her prayer for drunkenness, a misunderstanding that foreshadows the spiritual blindness of his own household.

God remembers Hannah, and she bears a son whom she names Samuel. True to her vow, once the child is weaned she brings him to the tabernacle at Shiloh and presents him to Eli, dedicating him to the LORD's service. The chapter establishes the book's central themes: God's sovereignty over human circumstances, the power of faithful prayer, and the principle that God raises up the lowly and brings down the proud. Hannah's story also sets the stage for the larger narrative: Israel's worship at Shiloh is compromised, its priesthood is corrupt, and the nation needs a prophetic voice. That voice will be Samuel.

Elkanah's Family and Hannah's Suffering (vv. 1--8)

¹ Now there was a man named Elkanah who was from Ramathaim-zophim in the hill country of Ephraim. He was the son of Jeroham, the son of Elihu, the son of Tohu, the son of Zuph, an Ephraimite. ² He had two wives, one named Hannah and the other Peninnah. And Peninnah had children, but Hannah had none. ³ Year after year Elkanah would go up from his city to worship and sacrifice to the LORD of Hosts at Shiloh, where Eli's two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, were priests to the LORD. ⁴ And whenever the day came for Elkanah to present his sacrifice, he would give portions to his wife Peninnah and to all her sons and daughters. ⁵ But to Hannah he would give a double portion, for he loved her even though the LORD had closed her womb. ⁶ Because the LORD had closed Hannah's womb, her rival would provoke her viciously to taunt her. ⁷ And this went on year after year. Whenever Hannah went up to the house of the LORD, her rival taunted her until she wept and would not eat. ⁸ "Hannah, why are you crying?" her husband Elkanah asked. "Why won't you eat? Why is your heart so grieved? Am I not better to you than ten sons?"

¹ There was a certain man from Ramathaim-zophim, in the hill country of Ephraim, whose name was Elkanah son of Jeroham, son of Elihu, son of Tohu, son of Zuph, an Ephraimite. ² He had two wives; the name of one was Hannah, and the name of the other was Peninnah. Peninnah had children, but Hannah had no children. ³ This man would go up from his town year after year to worship and to sacrifice to the LORD of Hosts at Shiloh. The two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, served there as priests of the LORD. ⁴ On the day when Elkanah sacrificed, he would give portions to his wife Peninnah and to all her sons and daughters. ⁵ But to Hannah he would give a double portion, because he loved her, though the LORD had closed her womb. ⁶ And her rival provoked her bitterly to upset her, because the LORD had closed her womb. ⁷ So it went year after year. As often as she went up to the house of the LORD, Peninnah would provoke her, and Hannah would weep and would not eat. ⁸ Elkanah her husband said to her, "Hannah, why do you weep? Why do you not eat? Why is your heart so downcast? Am I not worth more to you than ten sons?"

Notes

The genealogy in verse 1 traces Elkanah through five generations, establishing his Ephraimite credentials. The name אֶלְקָנָה means "God has created" or "God has acquired" — a fitting name for the father of a child who will be "asked of" God. Though Elkanah is called an Ephraimite (referring to his geographic location in the hill country of Ephraim), 1 Chronicles 6:33-38 identifies his family as Levites. This is not a contradiction: Levites, who had no tribal territory of their own, lived among the other tribes and were often identified by their place of residence.
רָמָתַיִם צוֹפִים — literally "the two heights of the watchmen" — is identified with Ramah, Samuel's hometown throughout the book. The name suggests elevation and watchfulness, fitting for the birthplace of Israel's prophet-judge.
The phrase "LORD of Hosts" (יְהוָ֣ה צְבָא֔וֹת) appears here for the first time in Scripture. This divine title, which later becomes common in the prophetic literature, means "LORD of Armies," referring to both heavenly and earthly forces under God's command. Its first appearance here is significant: as Israel's priesthood is failing, the author introduces God as the commander of all armies, the one who will set things right.
Elkanah's bigamy — having two wives — follows the pattern seen elsewhere in the patriarchal narratives: Sarah and Hagar (Genesis 16), Rachel and Leah (Genesis 29:28-30). In each case, the arrangement produces rivalry and suffering, particularly when one wife is fertile and the other is not. The text does not endorse polygamy; it simply records it and shows its painful consequences.
The statement that "the LORD had closed her womb" (vv. 5--6) is repeated twice, emphasizing that Hannah's barrenness is not random misfortune but falls under God's sovereign purpose. The Hebrew סָגַר ("to shut, close") is a strong verb implying deliberate action. The same God who closes will later open, and the delay creates the conditions for Hannah's prayer and vow.
Elkanah's question, "Am I not worth more to you than ten sons?" (v. 8), is both tender and tone-deaf. He loves Hannah genuinely — the double portion proves that — but he cannot understand her grief. In a culture where a woman's identity and security depended largely on bearing children, especially sons, a husband's love, however sincere, could not fully compensate for childlessness. The number ten signifies "more than enough" (compare Ruth 4:15, where Ruth is said to be "better than seven sons"), but Hannah's pain goes deeper than arithmetic.

Hannah's Prayer and Vow (vv. 9--18)

⁹ So after they had finished eating and drinking in Shiloh, Hannah stood up. Now Eli the priest was sitting on a chair by the doorpost of the temple of the LORD. ¹⁰ In her bitter distress, Hannah prayed to the LORD and wept with many tears. ¹¹ And she made a vow, saying, "O LORD of Hosts, if only You will look upon the affliction of Your maidservant and remember me, not forgetting Your maidservant but giving her a son, then I will dedicate him to the LORD all the days of his life, and no razor shall ever touch his head." ¹² As Hannah kept on praying before the LORD, Eli watched her mouth. ¹³ Hannah was praying in her heart, and though her lips were moving, her voice could not be heard. So Eli thought she was drunk ¹⁴ and said to her, "How long will you be drunk? Put away your wine!" ¹⁵ "No, my lord," Hannah replied. "I am a woman troubled in spirit. I have not had any wine or strong drink, but I have poured out my soul before the LORD. ¹⁶ Do not take your servant for a wicked woman, for all this time I have been praying out of the depth of my anguish and grief." ¹⁷ "Go in peace," Eli replied, "and may the God of Israel grant the petition you have asked of Him." ¹⁸ "May your maidservant find favor with you," said Hannah. Then she went on her way, and she began to eat, and her face was no longer downcast.

⁹ After they had eaten and drunk at Shiloh, Hannah rose. Now Eli the priest was sitting on a seat beside the doorpost of the temple of the LORD. ¹⁰ Deeply distressed, she prayed to the LORD and wept bitterly. ¹¹ And she made a vow and said, "O LORD of Hosts, if you will truly look on the suffering of your servant and remember me, and not forget your servant but give to your servant a son, then I will give him to the LORD for all the days of his life, and no razor will touch his head." ¹² As she continued praying before the LORD, Eli observed her mouth. ¹³ Hannah was speaking in her heart — her lips were moving, but her voice could not be heard — so Eli took her to be drunk. ¹⁴ And Eli said to her, "How long will you go on being drunk? Put your wine away from you." ¹⁵ But Hannah answered, "No, my lord. I am a woman crushed in spirit. I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but I have been pouring out my soul before the LORD. ¹⁶ Do not regard your servant as a worthless woman, for it is out of the depth of my anguish and provocation that I have been speaking all this time." ¹⁷ Then Eli answered and said, "Go in peace, and may the God of Israel grant the request you have made of him." ¹⁸ She said, "May your servant find favor in your eyes." Then the woman went her way, and she ate, and her face was no longer sad.

Notes

The word "temple" (הֵיכַל) in verse 9 has generated discussion, since Solomon's temple had not yet been built. The term here likely refers to the permanent structure at Shiloh that housed the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant. Archaeological evidence suggests Shiloh had a substantial religious complex during this period. The word hekhal can refer to any grand structure or palace, not exclusively to Solomon's later temple.
Hannah's vow that "no razor shall touch his head" (v. 11) indicates she is dedicating Samuel as a נָזִיר — a Nazirite. The Nazirite vow, described in Numbers 6:1-21, involved three prohibitions: no wine or grape products, no contact with the dead, and no cutting of the hair. Most Nazirite vows were temporary, but Hannah dedicates Samuel for life — like Samson (Judges 13:5). The uncut hair was the visible sign of consecration to God.
Eli's misreading of Hannah is deeply ironic. The high priest of Israel, sitting at the doorpost of God's house, cannot distinguish prayer from drunkenness. His spiritual perception is failing, a sign of the weakness in Israel's religious leadership. This failure anticipates the larger collapse of Eli's household described in 1 Samuel 2:12-17.
Hannah's self-description as קְשַׁת ר֫וּחַ — "hard of spirit" or "crushed in spirit" — conveys severe emotional distress. She then says she has "poured out" (אֶשְׁפֹּ֥ךְ) her נֶ֫פֶשׁ (soul) before the LORD. The verb "pour out" is used elsewhere for pouring out water (2 Samuel 14:14) or blood (Lamentations 2:12), suggesting something complete and irreversible. Hannah has held nothing back in prayer. This language of self-emptying before God becomes a model of prayer throughout Scripture (Psalm 42:4, Psalm 62:8).
In verse 16, Hannah asks not to be regarded as a בַּת בְּלִיַּעַל — literally "a daughter of worthlessness" or "a worthless woman." The term בְּלִיַּעַל will reappear immediately in 1 Samuel 2:12, where Eli's own sons are called בְּנֵי בְלִיַּעַל — "sons of worthlessness." The irony is sharp: Eli suspects Hannah, but it is his own sons who fit the description. Hannah is godly; Eli's house is corrupt.
The transformation in verse 18 is striking. Hannah receives no tangible answer — no child, no promise beyond Eli's blessing. Yet "her face was no longer sad." She eats again. What has changed? Hannah has entrusted her request to God. Her prayer has moved from anguish to peace, not because her circumstances have changed but because she has placed them in God's hands. This is a portrait of faith as trust, believing that God has heard even before the answer comes.

The Birth and Naming of Samuel (vv. 19--20)

¹⁹ The next morning they got up early to bow in worship before the LORD, and then they returned home to Ramah. And Elkanah had relations with his wife Hannah, and the LORD remembered her. ²⁰ So in the course of time, Hannah conceived and gave birth to a son. She named him Samuel, saying, "Because I have asked for him from the LORD."

¹⁹ They rose early in the morning and worshiped before the LORD, and then they returned to their home at Ramah. And Elkanah knew Hannah his wife, and the LORD remembered her. ²⁰ In due time Hannah conceived and bore a son. She called his name Samuel, saying, "Because I asked the LORD for him."

Notes

The phrase "the LORD remembered her" (וַ/יִּזְכְּרֶ֥/הָ יְהוָֽה) is a theologically significant expression. In Hebrew, "remembering" is not merely a mental act; it implies action. When God "remembers," He intervenes. The same verb is used when God remembered Noah in the flood (Genesis 8:1), Rachel in her barrenness (Genesis 30:22), and Israel in Egyptian slavery (Exodus 2:24). God's remembering marks the turn from suffering to deliverance.
The name שְׁמוּאֵל (Samuel) is explained by Hannah as "because I asked for him from the LORD." The name likely means "heard of God" or "name of God," though Hannah's wordplay connects it to the verb שָׁאַל — "to ask." The name that more directly derives from sha'al is שָׁאוּל — Saul. Some scholars see a deliberate literary connection: Samuel, the one "asked of God," will later anoint Saul, whose name literally means "asked for," the king Israel demanded. The wordplay links the two figures from the beginning.

Hannah Dedicates Samuel at Shiloh (vv. 21--28)

²¹ Then Elkanah and all his house went up to make the annual sacrifice to the LORD and to fulfill his vow, ²² but Hannah did not go. "After the boy is weaned," she said to her husband, "I will take him to appear before the LORD and to stay there permanently." ²³ "Do what you think is best," her husband Elkanah replied, "and stay here until you have weaned him. Only may the LORD confirm His word." So Hannah stayed and nursed her son until she had weaned him. ²⁴ Once she had weaned him, Hannah took the boy with her, along with a three-year-old bull, an ephah of flour, and a skin of wine. Though the boy was still young, she brought him to the house of the LORD at Shiloh. ²⁵ And when they had slaughtered the bull, they brought the boy to Eli. ²⁶ "Please, my lord," said Hannah, "as surely as you live, my lord, I am the woman who stood here beside you praying to the LORD. ²⁷ I prayed for this boy, and since the LORD has granted me what I asked of Him, ²⁸ I now dedicate the boy to the LORD. For as long as he lives, he is dedicated to the LORD." So they worshiped the LORD there.

²¹ The man Elkanah went up with all his household to offer the yearly sacrifice to the LORD and to pay his vow. ²² But Hannah did not go up, for she said to her husband, "When the child is weaned, I will bring him, so that he may appear before the LORD and remain there forever." ²³ Elkanah her husband said to her, "Do what seems good to you. Wait until you have weaned him. Only, may the LORD establish his word." So the woman stayed behind and nursed her son until she weaned him. ²⁴ When she had weaned him, she took him up with her, along with a three-year-old bull, an ephah of flour, and a skin of wine, and she brought him to the house of the LORD at Shiloh. The child was still young. ²⁵ They slaughtered the bull and brought the boy to Eli. ²⁶ And she said, "Pardon me, my lord! As surely as you live, my lord, I am the woman who stood here in your presence praying to the LORD. ²⁷ For this child I prayed, and the LORD has granted me the request I made of him. ²⁸ Therefore I have lent him to the LORD. As long as he lives, he is lent to the LORD." And they worshiped the LORD there.

Notes

Weaning in the ancient Near East typically occurred around age three, so Samuel would have been a young child when Hannah brought him to Shiloh. The offerings she brings — a three-year-old bull, an ephah of flour, and wine — constitute a substantial sacrifice, fitting the occasion. The Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint read "a three-year-old bull" (singular), while the Masoretic Text reads "three bulls" (plural). Most modern translations follow the Dead Sea Scrolls reading.
Elkanah's response, "May the LORD establish his word" (v. 23), is interesting. The Masoretic Text reads "his word" (דְּבָר֑/וֹ), while the Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint, and Syriac read "your word" — that is, Hannah's vow. The MT reading may refer to Eli's prophetic word of blessing in verse 17, or to God's own purposes. Either way, Elkanah supports Hannah's decision and trusts God to bring it to completion.
Hannah's wordplay in verse 28 closes the chapter's literary arc. She says "I have lent him to the LORD" — but the Hebrew verb הִשְׁאִלְתִּ֨/הוּ֙ is from the same root שׁאל ("to ask") that she used to explain Samuel's name. The verb in the Hiphil form means "to lend" or "to give over on request." The movement is complete: Hannah "asked" (שָׁאַל) God for a son, and now she "lends back" (hish'il) to God what she asked for. What God gave, she returns as an act of worship. This is the chapter's clearest expression of faith: Hannah's blessing is not something she clings to but something she offers back to the Giver.
The chapter ends with worship — "they worshiped the LORD there." After the tears, the vow, the birth, and the act of leaving her young son at the tabernacle, Hannah and her family worship. This is the posture that defines Hannah: she receives from God with gratitude and gives back to God with trust. Her song of praise in 1 Samuel 2:1-10 will give voice to the theology embodied in this act of dedication.

Interpretations

Hannah's prayer as a model for prayer has been discussed across traditions. Some point to the silent, inward nature of her prayer (v. 13) as a model for contemplative devotion, contrasting it with the public, verbal worship that was standard in ancient Israel. Others focus on the vow itself, debating whether Christians should make conditional vows to God ("If you do X, I will do Y"). Protestant traditions generally counsel caution about vows (citing Ecclesiastes 5:4-5) but recognize Hannah's example as one of genuine faith rather than bargaining.
The theme of the barren woman receiving a child through divine intervention connects Hannah to Sarah (Genesis 21:1-2), Rebekah (Genesis 25:21), Rachel (Genesis 30:22), the mother of Samson (Judges 13:2-3), and ultimately to Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1:7-13). This pattern suggests that God's servants often come into the world through circumstances that make clear they are gifts of grace, not products of human effort. Mary's Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55) closely echoes Hannah's song in 1 Samuel 2:1-10, drawing a clear literary and theological connection between the two mothers.